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Home All issues Volume 32 (2025) OCL, 32 (2025) 12 Full HTML
Issue
OCL
Volume 32, 2025
Palm and palm oil / Palmier et huile de palme
Article Number 12
Number of page(s) 7
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2025011
Published online 06 May 2025

© D. Arifiyanto et al., Published by EDP Sciences, 2025

Licence Creative CommonsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Introduction

Highlights

  • SL81 is an elite low-lipase oil palm genotype with free fatty acid (FFA) levels below 3%;

  • This genotype maintains high carotenoid content and DOBI values; ensuring superior oil quality

  • SL81 bunches can be harvested up to 21 days after ripening without compromising key physicochemical properties.

Indonesia is the world’s leading exporter and producer of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis Jacq., Arecaceae). Oil palm has three fruit types: tenera (thin shell), pisifera (no shell), and dura (thick shell; Arifiyanto et al., 2017). The tenera type is the backbone of commercial production in Indonesia and most countries (Wening et al., 2012). Crude palm oil (CPO) is extracted from the oil palm fruit mesocarp, which comprises up to 90% of the dry weight and contains the highest oil content among plant tissues (Bourgis et al., 2011). The key physicochemical qualities that determine CPO quality include low free fatty acid (FFA) content, which minimises oil degradation (Morcillo et al., 2013); high carotenoid content, which provides antioxidant benefits and enhances nutritional value (Fattore and Fanelli, 2013); and a high deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) value, which ensures better oil clarity and refining efficiency (Julianti et al., 2021). These qualities are essential to meet industry standards and improve the suitability of palm oil for consumption and industrial applications.

Oil quality is a concern in the oil palm industry. Furthermore, these quality measures have significant implications for human health. Owing to lipase activities in the mesocarp, triglycerides in ripe fruit quickly degrade after abscission and bruising (Sambanthamurthi et al., 1995; Abigor et al., 1985). Lipase activity releases free fatty acids (FFAs) that promote palm oil acidification and reduce fruit quality. Some factors that affect FFA content include harvesting delay, factory processing, and storage duration (Henderson and Osborne 1991; Escallón-Barrios et al., 2022.; Basyuni et al., 2017). In addition, acidified palm oil with high saturated fatty acids is unfit for human consumption, since it could increase the risk of cardiovascular problems in the human body (Fattore and Fanelli 2013), due to oxidative stress (de Souza et al., 2015). Moreover, the carotenoid concentration is proposed to possess antioxidant properties and is abundant in oil palm (Absalome et al., 2020). These characteristics, including FFA and carotene content, need to be maintained by proper refining methods, which are indicated by the DOBI value (Gibon et al., 2009). The higher DOBI value indicates the lower oxidation to the CPO, ensuring better oil stability and reducing harmful secondary oxidation products, which have been linked to inflammatory responses in humans (Gibon et al., 2009). Thus, maintaining optimal levels of these physicochemical parameters is crucial for both oil quality and human well-being.

The FFA content in CPO can be removed by expensive refining methods requiring high energy (Gibon, 2012). However, using the oil palm plants with low lipase activity, would be a more cost-effective solution to the problem than using refinery processes. Meanwhile, studies correlating the selection of oil palm genotypes still focus on production (Daza et al., 2021; Romero et al., 2021), disease resistance (Tisné et al., 2017; Basyuni et al., 2019), and tissue culture propagation (Morcillo et al., 2006). The present study suggests good results in oil quality rather than quantity. A CPO’s qualities are essential for improving germplasm characteristics (Cadena et al., 2013), and some genotypes of palm oil exhibit varying levels of lipase activity (Morcillo et al., 2013; Domonhedo et al., 2018).

In the current study, we demonstrate that some elite low-lipase palms can be selected from our large germplasm collections. Selection is based on the lowest FFA content, the highest DOBI and carotene level. The correlations between overripe bunches and days of harvesting were examined. Futhermore, using the oil palm with low lipase charactheristics, the oil palm plantations and smallholders can select convenient harvesting days for cost-effectiveness without risking any qualities.

2 Material and methods

2.1 Study Site

The study area was conducted at the Aek Loba Estate of PT Socfin Indonesia, in the district of Asahan, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. The Aek Loba Estate is located at 02° 35′ 1.25′′ and 02° 40′ 23.2′′ N and 99° 32′ 34.52′′ and 99° 43′ 30.87′′ E. This estate has existed since the 1930s, now hosts third- and fourth-generation oil palm plantings. To date, plantations and surrounding areas in the estate are suffering from Ganoderma boninense attack (Mercière et al., 2015). Physicochemical characteristics were analysed in the analytical laboratories of PT Socfin Indonesia, which was accredited by ISO 17025:2018.

2.2 Instrumentation

Agilent Cary 60 spectrophotometer (Crawford Scientific Ltd), BRAND digital burette (BRAND GMBH + CO KG, Germany), Precisa analytical balance XB-220 (Dietikon), Thermo Scientific micropipette (1000 μL), Hiclave HVE-50 autoclave (Hirayama), Liebherr freezer (Liebherr, Switzerland), and Memmert UNB400 oven (Memmert GmbH + Co. KG, Germany) were used.

2.3 Samples

The samples in this study were collected from the extensive germplasm collection owned by PT Socfin Indonesia, Indonesia, and consisted of 11 oil palm genotypes originating from Dabou, Lame, and Pobe. These genotypes were selected according to the origins of the families’ ancestors. The first group (genotypes SL82, SL57, SL10, and SL45) was suspected to have high lipase activity and comprised genotypes from the families DA3D, DA5D, and LM718T. The second group (genotypes SL81, SL33, SL60, and SL66) was supposed to have low lipase activity and comprised genotypes from the families LM2T and DA115D. The DA3D, DA5D, DA115D, and LM2T families constituted the third group, which had normal-to-high lipase activity (genotypes SL13, SL93, and SL37).

2.4 Field Sampling

Ripe fruit samples were collected from 10-year-old oil palm trees with an average height of 5–7 m. A bunch was classified as ripe when one to five loose fruits were observed on the ground. The overripe bunch was left on the trees for subsequent sampling, 21 days after fruit ripening (AFR). Moreover, 15–20 pieces of fallen, ripe, overripe fruit in the bunch from random spikelets were harvested using clean knives and brought to the laboratory on the same day for further processing.

2.5 Oil Extraction

In the laboratory, the best-ripened fruits with no defects or fungal contamination were selected and cleaned. The mesocarp of the fruit was cut into thin slices with a blade and immediately dried in an oven at 103°C ± 2°C for 1 h. Oil was extracted from the hot sliced mesocarp with the press machine. CPO was stored in a small glass bottle and frozen at −20°C before analysis.

2.6 Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Content

The FFA content of the CPO samples was analysed using the titration method previously described (Ali et al., 2015). Frozen samples were thawed by heating to 50°C and weighed. Each sample was 2 g. The aliquots of ethanol were used to dissolve the samples, which were then titrated with 0.1 N NaOH and phenolphthalein indicator. When a persistent pink colour appeared, the FFA concentration calculated using the following formula: %FFA=256×V×N10×W×100%,(1)

where the molecular mass of palmitic acid is 256, N is the normality of NaOH, W is the CPO weight (g), and V is NaOH volume titration.

2.7 Determination of Total Carotene

The total carotene concentration was determined using the UV-Vis spectrophotometer at 446 nm wavelength and a 1cm quartz cuvette according to the method described by Nokkaew et al. (2019), and expressed in parts per million (ppm). The samples were homogenised, and 0.1g ± 0.0001g of each sample was placed in a 25 mL volumetric flask. n-Hexane was used to dilute the samples before measurement, and the total carotene concentration was computed using the following formula: Carotene(ppm)=A446×383×V100×W,(2)

where W is the CPO weight, A446 is 446 nm absorbance, specific extinction coefficient is 383, V is the volume (mL).

2.8 Determination of Deterioration of Bleachability Index (DOBI)

DOBI in CPO was measured as described by Nokkaew R. et al. (2019). Approximately 0.1g of CPO extract was weighed and placed in a 25 mL volumetric flask, and n-hexane was used to dissolve the samples. The samples were measured at 269 and 446 nm with the UV-Vis spectrophotometer and quartz cuvette (1 cm). DOBI was calculated using the following formula: %DOBI=A446A269,(3)

where A269 is absorbance at 269 nm and A446 is absorbance at 446 nm.

2.9 Overripening CPO

To assess the impact of overripening on CPO quality, fruit bunches were left on the trees for an extended period beyond the initial ripening stage. The fruits were then collected at different intervals (0, 7, 14, and 21 days after ripening) to evaluate the changes in FFA, carotenoid content, and DOBI values. This method allowed for an accurate assessment of how extended ripening influences oil quality.

2.10 Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was carried out by performing one-way analysis of variance followed by Duncan’s multiple range test. P < 0.05, and IBM SPSS Statistic Version 29 was used. The effect of the harvesting days and genotype on FFA, DOBI, and total carotene content of the CPO was examined, and correlations among these parameters and the effects of one trait on others were evaluated.

3 Results

3.1 Physicochemical Properties of Low-Lipase Oil Palm Genotypes

To assess the performance of major physicochemical qualities among the 11 genotypes, we analysed FFA, carotene, and DOBI content. The SL81 genotype had the lowest FFA content (2.23% ± 1.88%), whereas SL37 had the highest (17.70% ± 3.60%). The DOBI values of SL33, SL93, SL10, and SL81 were exceptionally high (above 3.6), whereas the other genotypes had lower values (2.8–3.4). Furthermore, SL66, SL93, SL33, and SL81 had very high carotene content (above 800ppm), whereas SL60 and SL45 had the lowest content (under 600 ppm). The other genotypes had average content (700–800 p­pm; Fig. 1). The standard deviation of FFA was high, except in the SL60 genotype (Fig. 1a).

thumbnail Fig. 1

Boxplot showing free fatty acid (a), carotene (b), and DOBI (c) levels. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 10). Blue line indicates Malaysian maximum/minimum standard (MS 814, 2007).

3.2 Development of Physicochemical Qualities during Ripening and Overripening

We further focused on the major cause of oil acidity in palm oil: delayed bunch harvesting because of the lack of labor and remoteness of an area. Bunches from 11 genotypes were left on the trees for up to 21 days after ripening, and the development of FFA and carotenoid content and DOBI in the overripe fruit (0–21 days) fruit was observed.

To prevent environmental factors from affecting fruit quality, oil extraction was conducted in the laboratory within four hours after harvesting. This approach ensured that external conditions did not alter the physicochemical properties of the oil, allowing for accurate assessment of FFA, carotenoid content, and DOBI values. In general, FFA content increased from 0 to 21 days AFR (Fig. 2a). The FFA content in SL81 remained below 3% 21 days AFR. By contrast, carotenoid content decreased (Fig. 2b), and the DOBI was more stable from the first harvesting day (day 0) to day 21 AFR (Fig. 2c).

thumbnail Fig. 2

Physicochemical development of fruit during ripening and AFR: FFA (a), carotene (b), and DOBI (c). Data are presented as mean ± SE (n = 6).

4 Discussion

4.1 CPO Qualities in Genotypes

The strict quality requirements for edible vegetable oils have increased in the past decades, particularly for CPO. Requirements for FFA, DOBI, and carotene, which affect human health, have been implemented. At room temperature, CPO from low-lipase genotypes was solid and homogeneous, indicating that the saturated fat levels were higher than those of unsaturated fats (de Souza et al., 2015). However, the high-lipase CPO was still liquid and contained some crystals. This effect has been described by Corley and Tinker (2016), who noted that crystallisation in CPO is caused by diglycerides and can be removed by an energy-costly refining process (Simarani et al., 2009).

The acceptable FFA content of CPO is under 5%. Thus, a value exceeding this limit is considered unfit for human consumption (Morcillo et al., 2013). According to the Indonesian (TAMSI-DMSI, 2010) and Malaysian standards (MS 814, 2007), SL81 is the only genotype that fulfils the FFA content requirements (Fig. 1a). The average FFA content at ripening was 2.23% (1.00%–3.70%), which was statistically significant compared with the FFA content of the other genotypes. Moreover, the carotene content and DOBI of SL81 was excellent 20 days AFR. Meanwhile, SL37 had the highest FFA content (average of 17.70%, ranging from 6.17% to 24.83%) and significantly different from the FFA content of the other genotypes. That is, the the SL37 genotype did not meet the requirements of either standard.

A DOBI of >3.0 indicates a good CPO product, whereas a value under 2.0 indicates poor CPO quality. DOBI is the ratio of the total carotenoid to the secondary oxidation products (Julianti et al., 2021). If the DOBI ratio does not reach the minimum standard, it would impede the refinery process in a mill (Gibon, 2012) and increase the cost of oil production. The carotene content of SL45 and SL60 did not meet the Malaysian standard (581 ± 45.5 ppm). By contrast, the other genotypes met the requirement (Fig. 1b). Fortunately, the DOBI values of the CPOs exceeded the standard (>2.3; Fig. 1c).

Our result shows that the FFA deviation standard of the genotypes was high (Fig. 1a), indicating that some palm trees within the same genotype had high FFA content. This result indicates that the low-acidity trait was inherited after Mendelian segregation and confirmed as a monogenic trait (Morcillo et al., 2013).

4.2 Effect of Overripening on CPO Quality

In general, the quality and stability of CPO, including FFA and carotene content and DOBI, decreases after a few days of storage (Baharin et al., 2001; Basyuni et al., 2017). These issues can be mitigated through sterilisation procedures for post-harvest fruit in mills on the same day. Unfortunately, these procedures may be difficult to implement in plantations with limited labour and infrastructure. This problem can be offset by using the SL81 genotype, which has an extremely low FFA content (<5%) during ripening or overripening until 21 days (Fig. 2). Naturally, the FFA content in the bunch increased up to two to three times during the overripe period, compared with the first harvesting day. However, when other genotypes showed an insufficient amount of FFA, the SL81 still showed the minimum amount and met the Indonesian and Malaysian standards.

The carotenoid concentration in SL81 consistently decreased from day 1, reaching approximately 800ppm by day 21. This concentration is considered high under Malaysian and Indonesian standards. Nevertheless, some genotypes exhibited stability from ripening (day 1) to overripening (day 21). This result differed from that obtained by Basyuni et al. (2017), who reported that carotenoids degraded by up to 50% during storage on day 28. The carotenoid content of the fruit that was not harvested was influenced by biosynthesis in the tree and was stable until the fruit was overripe, unlike the carotenoid content in the harvested bunches, which had no connection to plant biosynthesis and were then influenced by the environment (Morcillo et al., 2013).

Similar to carotenoid content, the DOBI values for all genotypes, including the SL81, from day 1 to day 21 exceeded 2.3, whereas the carotenoid content and DOBI of this genotype were positively correlated (Supplementary Table 1B). That is, the DOBI decreased when the carotenoid content was lowered and vice versa. This result indicates that the carotenoid content was one of the key factors influencing the quality of oil and affects the stability and quality of nutrition (Baharin et al., 2001). The results indicate that oil palm plantations and smallholders may extend harvest intervals from the standard 7-day rotation to 8–21 days AFR without losing the quality of CPO by using SL81.

5 Conclusions

Only SL81 exhibited an extremely low FFA content. The increase in FFA content during ripening and overripening is a predictable physiological process. Even though the FFA content, carotenoid levels, and DOBI in SL81 at 21 days AFR still met both Indonesian and Malaysian standards, four trees with the SL81 genotype had a high FFA content (Supplementary Table 2). This indicates that some individuals within the SL81 genotype may still carry the high-lipase trait. Nonetheless, SL81 is confirmed as an elite low-lipase line, with bunches that can be harvested flexibly up to 21 days AFR.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mr Chandra Ady Pasha and Mr Irfan for their assistance during sampling. We are grateful to PT Socfin Indonesia for providing materials and laboratory facilities. We are also grateful to all professors in the Agricultural Science Doctoral Programme at Universitas Sumatera Utara for their ideas and support.

Funding

This study was funded by the Directorate General of Research, Technology, and Community Service, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia through the Penelitian Disertasi Doktor scheme No. 51/UN5.2.3.1/PPM/KP-DRTPM/TI/2022.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Author contribution statement

Each author (D.A., M.B., R.I.M.D., and R.) contributed equally by conducting experiments and analyses, writing the initial draft, and finalizing the draft. R.P.A., D.A., and I.S. reviewed and completed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the published version of the manuscript.

Supplementary materials

Table 1. Correlation matrix of CPO qualities on each genotype.

Table 2. %FFA content on genotype SL81.

Access here

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Cite this article as: Arifiyanto D, Basyuni M, Damanik RIM, Rosmayati, Astari RP, Syahputra I, Affandi D. 2025. Physicochemical qualities of low-lipase oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) during fruit ripening on tree. OCL 32: 12 https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2025011.

All Figures

thumbnail Fig. 1

Boxplot showing free fatty acid (a), carotene (b), and DOBI (c) levels. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 10). Blue line indicates Malaysian maximum/minimum standard (MS 814, 2007).
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 2

Physicochemical development of fruit during ripening and AFR: FFA (a), carotene (b), and DOBI (c). Data are presented as mean ± SE (n = 6).
In the text

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