Labour demand, economic profitability, energy efficiency, and greenhouse gas emissions: A comparative assessment of mechanization scenarios across yield gradients in oil palm crops in Colombia | OCL

Palm and palm oil / Palmier et huile de palme

Open Access

Issue		OCL Volume 33, 2026 Palm and palm oil / Palmier et huile de palme


Article Number		10
Number of page(s)		14
DOI		https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2026001
Published online		04 March 2026

Abbas A, Yang M, Elahi E, Yousaf K, Ahmad R, Iqbal T. 2017. Quantification of mechanization index and its impact on crop productivity and socio-economic factors. Int Agric Eng J 26(3): 49–54. [Google Scholar]
Aguilera E, Guzmán GI, González de Molina M, Soto D, Infante-Amate J. 2019. From animals to machines. The impact of mechanization on the carbon footprint of traction in Spanish agriculture: 1900–2014. J Clean Prod 221: 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.247 [Google Scholar]
Ahmad SR, Mohd A, Mohd B, Ahmad MR. 2021. Enhancing mechanisation technology in oil palm plantation. Palm Oil Eng Bull No. 138. http://myagric.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/23450/ [Google Scholar]
Anyaoha KE, Zhang L. 2021. Renewable energy for environmental protection: life cycle inventory of Nigeria’s palm oil production. Resour Conserv Recycl 174: 105797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105797 [Google Scholar]
Azarias J, Nettle R, Williams J. 2020. National Agricultural Workforce Strategy: Learning to excel, National Agricultural Labour Advisory Committee. agriculture.gov.au/ag-farm-food/agricultural-workforce. [Google Scholar]
Azwan MB, Norasikin AL, Abd Rahim S, Norman K, Salmah J. 2016. Analysis of energy utilisation in malaysian oil palm mechanisation operation. J Oil Palm Res 28(4): 485–495. https://doi.org/10.21894/jopr.2016.2804.10 [Google Scholar]
Balafoutis A, Beck B, Fountas S, et al. 2017. Precision agriculture technologies positively contributing to GHG emissions mitigation, farm productivity and economics. Sustainability 9(8): 1339. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9081339 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Baruah DC, Bora GC. 2008. Energy demand forecast for mechanized agriculture in rural India. Energy Policy 36(7): 2628–2636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.03.030 [Google Scholar]
Bojacá CR, Hernández-Rendón DA, Tupaz-Vera AA, Camperos-Reyes JE. 2025. Strategic optimization of harvest collection points in oil palm plantations☆. OCL 32: 24. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2025025 [Google Scholar]
Chaitrali SM, Tania S, Gayatri M, Arpita M, Ankita Sahu MM. 2025. Role of mechanization in sustainable agriculture: concepts, innovations, and way forward. Int J Res Agron. [Google Scholar]
Cherati F, Bahrami H, Asakereh A. 2011. Energy survey of mechanized and traditional rice production system in Mazandaran Province of Iran. Afr J Agric Res 6. [Google Scholar]
Chowdhury T, Chowdhury H, Ahmed A, et al. 2020. Energy, exergy, and sustainability analyses of the agricultural sector in Bangladesh. Sustainability (Switzerland) 12(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114447 [Google Scholar]
Cock J, Prager S, Meinke H, Echeverria R. 2022. Labour productivity: the forgotten yield gap. Agric Syst 201(July): 103452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103452 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Dalheimer B, Kubitza C, Brümmer B. 2022. Technical efficiency and farmland expansion: evidence from oil palm smallholders in Indonesia. Am J Agric Econ 104(4): 1364–1387. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12267 [Google Scholar]
Dedieu B, Contzen S, Nettle R, Schiavi SM. de A, Sraïri MT. 2022. The multiple influences on the future of work in agriculture: global perspectives. Front Sustain Food Syst 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.889508 [Google Scholar]
Dedieu B, Nettle R, Schiavi SM de A, Sraïri MT, Malanski PD. 2022. Which perspectives for work in agriculture? Food for thought for a research agenda. Front Sustain Food Syst 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.857887 [Google Scholar]
Dockès A-C, Chauvat S, Correa P, Turlot A, Nettle R. 2018. Advice and advisory roles about work on farms. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 39(1): 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-018-0547-x [Google Scholar]
Elsoragaby S, Yahya A, Mahadi MR, Nawi NM, Mairghany M. 2019. Energy utilization in major crop cultivation. Energy 173: 1285–1303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.142 [Google Scholar]
FAO. 2019. Sustainable agricultural mechanization: a framework for Africa - Synopsis. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c610a6b7-47fd-4b40-8cf7-e66dfd892735/content [Google Scholar]
FAO. 2022. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9479en [Google Scholar]
Fedepalma. 2025. Anuario estadístico 2024. https://publicaciones.fedepalma.org/index.php/anuario/article/view/14372 [Google Scholar]
García Kerdan I, Giarola S, Skinner E, Tuleu M, Hawkes A. 2020. Modelling future agricultural mechanisation of major crops in China: an assessment of energy demand, land use and emissions. Energies 13(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/en13246636 [Google Scholar]
Gebiso T, Ketema M, Shumetie A, Feye GL. 2024. Impact of farm mechanization on crop productivity and economic efficiency in central and southern Oromia, Ethiopia. Front Sustain Food Syst 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1414912 [Google Scholar]
Guei MFM, Banakinaou W, Bakayoko M, Hasegawa H. 2025. Economic viability of mechanization service provision for rice cultivation: a case study of small and medium enterprises in Cote d’Ivoire. Sci Afr 29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02848 [Google Scholar]
Hamzah NH, Hashim MS. 2024. Impact of COVID-19 on labour usage and the production of oil palm yield. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 1397(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1397/1/012001 [Google Scholar]
Hasan MK, Tanaka TST, Ali MR, Saha CK, Alam MM. 2021. Harvester evaluation using real-time kinematic GNSS and hiring service model. Agri Eng 3(2): 363–382. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering3020024 [Google Scholar]
Havugimana A, Harerimana L, Gace D, Bugenimana D, Nsengimana A. 2025. Economic analysis and effect of using farm machinery for soybeans production at Gishari Demonstration Farm, Rwanda. Open J Appl Sci 15(06): 1766–1792. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2025.156121 [Google Scholar]
Hercher-Pasteur J, Loiseau E, Sinfort C, Hélias A. 2020. Energetic assessment of the agricultural production system. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 40(4): 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00627-2 [Google Scholar]
Hormozi MA, Amin Asoodar M, Abdeshahi A. 2012. Impact of mechanization on technical efficiency: a case study of rice farmers in Iran. Proc Econ Financ 1: 176–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(12)00021-4 [Google Scholar]
Ibarrola-Rivas M, Kastner T, Nonhebel S. 2016. How much time does a farmer spend to produce my food? An international comparison of the impact of diets and mechanization. Resources 5(4): 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources5040047 [Google Scholar]
Jensen TA, Antille DL, Tullberg JN. 2025. Improving on-farm energy use efficiency by optimizing machinery operations and management: a review. Agric Res 14(1): 15–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-024-00824-5 [Google Scholar]
Jia Y, Xu H. 2024. Study of the relationship between agricultural mechanization, environmental regulation and agricultural carbon emissions; [农业机械化、环境规制与农业碳排放的关系研究]. J Chin Agric Mech 45(12): 208–215. https://doi.org/10.13733/j.jcam.issn.20955553.2024.12.031 [Google Scholar]
Kargwal R, Yadvika Kumar A, Garg MK, Chanakaewsomboon I. 2022. A review on global energy use patterns in major crop production systems. Environ Sci: Adv 1(5): 662–679. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2VA00126H [Google Scholar]
Kumar N, Chhokar RS, Tripathi SC, Gill SC, Kumar M. 2022. Frontier mechanization technologies for wheat based cropping systems BT - new horizons in wheat and barley research : crop protection and resource management. In: Kashyap PL, Gupta V, Prakash Gupta O, Sendhil R, Gopalareddy K, Jasrotia P, Singh GP, eds. Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 491–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4134-3_18 [Google Scholar]
Liu Q, He P. 2024. Research on the impact of agricultural machinery services on farmers’ enthusiasm of rapeseed planting in the Yangtze River Economic Zone: based on cost and yield perspective; [长江经济带农机服务对农户油菜籽种植积极性的影响研究 基于成本与产量视角]. J Chin Agric Mech 45(11): 290–298. https://doi.org/10.13733/j.jcam.issn.2095-5553.2024.11.045 [Google Scholar]
Malanski PD, Schiavi SM de A, Dedieu B, Damansceno JC. 2022. International research on labor in agri-food value chains: a bibliometric review from web of science. Front Sustain Food Syst 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.852178 [Google Scholar]
Mandal K., Saha K., Ghosh P., Hati K., Bandyopadhyay K. 2002. Bioenergy and economic analysis of soybean-based crop production systems in central India. Biomass Bioenergy 23(5): 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(02)00058-2 [Google Scholar]
McDonald N, Luke J, Cosby A. 2024. Non-technical skills needed for the current and next-generation agricultural workforce. Agriculture 14(7): 1106. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071106 [Google Scholar]
Mosquera-Montoya M, Munévar Martínez DE, Ruíz Álvarez E, Fontanilla-Díaz CA, Salamanca ÓH, Obregón Esguerra JM. 2023. Labor productivity assessment of three different mechanized harvest systems in Colombian oil palm crops. OCL 30: 15. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2023014 [CrossRef] [EDP Sciences] [Google Scholar]
Mosquera-Montoya M, Ruiz-Álvarez E, Munévar-Martínez D, et al. 2023. Estudio de costos de producción 2022 para plantaciones de palma de aceite referentes por su productividad. Palmas 44(3): 43–55. https://publicaciones.fedepalma.org/index.php/palmas/article/view/14084/13930 [Google Scholar]
Mosquera-Montoya M, Ruíz-Álvarez E, Munévar-Martínez D, Estupiñán M, Sinisterra K. 2023. Índice de costos para la palma de aceite (ICPA). Revista Palmas 44(3): 56–69. https://publicaciones.fedepalma.org/index.php/palmas/article/view/14085/ [Google Scholar]
Mousavi-Avval SH, Mohammadi A, Rafiee S, Tabatabaeefar A. 2012. Assessing the technical efficiency of energy use in different barberry production systems. J Clean Prod 27: 126–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.01.014 [Google Scholar]
Munar D, Chaparro D, Ramírez N, García J. 2021. Emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero para diferentes métodos de cosecha, alce y transporte de racimos de fruta fresca en palma de aceite. Revista Palmas 42(2): 49–61. [Google Scholar]
Muratova E, Ivanova E. 2023. Identification of technological and economic performance indicators of a combine harvester for assessing its competitiveness. Lect Notes Netw Syst 575 LNNS: 1214–1220. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21219-2_137 [Google Scholar]
Narzullaev DZ, Ilhamov KS, Tursunov AT, Baydullaev AS, Akhmedov YA. 2023. Automation of the agricultural sector of the Republic of Uzbekistan. E3S Web Conf 392. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339201037 [Google Scholar]
Nettle R, Kuehne G, Lee K, Armstrong D. 2018. A new framework to analyse workforce contribution to Australian cotton farm adaptability. Agron Sustain Dev 38(4): 38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-018-0514-6 [Google Scholar]
Norhajijah D, Mohiddin AK, Pebrian D. 2021. Exploring mechanization degree and capacity in Malaysia’s oil palm plantations. AgricEngInt: CIGR J 23(2): 220–228. [Google Scholar]
Peng J, Zhao Z, Liu D. 2022. Impact of agricultural mechanization on agricultural production, income, and mechanism: evidence From Hubei Province, China. Front Environ Sci 10: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.838686 [Google Scholar]
Pishgar-Komleh SH, Ghahderijani M, Sefeedpari P. 2012. Energy consumption and CO₂ emissions analysis of potato production based on different farm size levels in Iran. J Clean Prod 33: 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.04.008 [Google Scholar]
Purnama I, Mutamima A, Aziz M, et al. 2025. Environmental impacts and the food vs. fuel debate: a critical review of palm oil as biodiesel. GCB Bioenergy 17(6): e70043. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.70043 [Google Scholar]
Ramirez-Contreras NE, Munar-Florez DA, Garcia-Nuñez JA, Mosquera-Montoya M, Faaij APC. 2020. The GHG emissions and economic performance of the Colombian palm oil sector; current status and long-term perspectives. J Clean Prod 258: 120757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120757 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Ramírez N, Munar D, Albarracin J, et al. 2024. Aceite de palma colombiano: huella de carbono y retos para una producción sosteible. Palmas (Colombia) 45(2): 20–39. [Google Scholar]
Ruíz Álvarez E, Mosquera-Montoya M, Munevar DE, Vargas LE, Vélez Zape JC. 2022. Productividad laboral en plantaciones de palma de aceite en Colombia. Federación Nacional de Cultivadores de Palma de Aceite. https://doi.org/10.56866/9789588360966 [Google Scholar]
Ruiz E, Banguera J, Pérez Toro W, Hernández Hernández J, Arévalo J, Mosquera Montoya M. 2020. Technical and economic assessment of two harvesting tools for young Elaeis oleifera x E. guineensis oil palms. Agron Colomb 38(3): 418–428. https://doi.org/10.15446/agron.colomb.v38n3.85303 [Google Scholar]
Santhanam-Martin M, Wilkinson R, Cowan L, Nettle R. 2024. Elaborating decent work for agriculture: job experiences and workforce retention in the Australian orchard industry. J Rural Stud 111: 103330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2024.103330 [Google Scholar]
Sharafi S, Kazemi A, Amiri Z. 2023. Estimating energy consumption and GHG emissions in crop production: a machine learning approach. J Clean Prod 408: 137242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137242 [Google Scholar]
Syarifudin SM, Zareen Z. 2021. Impact of the agricultural technology transfer to the production of independent palm oil smallholders: a review. Food Res 5(4): 110–124. https://doi.org/10.26656/FR.2017.5(S4).007 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Unakitan G, Hurma H, Yilmaz F. 2010. An analysis of energy use efficiency of canola production in Turkey. Energy 35(9): 3623–3627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.05.005 [Google Scholar]
Yan F, Sun X, Chen S, Dai G. 2024. Does agricultural mechanization improve agricultural environmental efficiency? Front Environ Sci 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1344903 [Google Scholar]
Zapata-Hernández A, Ruiz-Álvarez E, Arias N, Mosquera-Montoya M, Cooman A. 2024. Adoption of mechanization alternatives in oil palm crops in the Colombian Orinoquía natural region. OCL - Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids 31. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2024008 [Google Scholar]
Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Piao H. 2022. Does agricultural mechanization improve agricultural environment efficiency? Evidence from China’s planting industry. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(35): 53673–53690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19642-9 [Google Scholar]

Current usage metrics show cumulative count of Article Views (full-text article views including HTML views, PDF and ePub downloads, according to the available data) and Abstracts Views on Vision4Press platform.

Data correspond to usage on the plateform after 2015. The current usage metrics is available 48-96 hours after online publication and is updated daily on week days.

Initial download of the metrics may take a while.