Table 8
Environmental services provided by the palm production system with intercropping.
| Environmental service type | Environmental service description | Finding | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Provisioning | Terrestrial plants grown for nutrition, materials or energy. | The intercropping systems provide food, building materials, inputs for energy production and ornamentation. | Koczberski et al. (2012); Maitra et al. (2021); Okere et al. (2015); Sagna et al. (2019) |
| Regulating | Control of erosion rates | Cover crops (mainly legumes) provide protection against erosion and regulate runoff. | Erhabor et al. (2002); Satriawan et al. (2021) |
| Temperature and humidity control | The systems intercropped with black pepper showed a reduction in air and soil temperature of 1.3 and 2.1 °C. | Ashraf et al. (2019) | |
| Regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere | Intercropping can increase capture of CO2 in the atmosphere and storage of carbon in soil reserves, up to 44%.Intercropping with pineapple can generate 30% more carbon stock compared to palm monoculture but generate methane emissions. Also, the system with cocoa can offer a lower carbon debt and have higher above and below ground carbon accumulation (116.7 Mg C/ha). | Ahirwal et al. (2022); Albrecht and Kandji, (2003); Besar et al. (2020); Budiadi et al. (2019); Chinade et al. (2015); Gomes et al. (2021); Khasanah et al. (2020); Lal and Kimble, (1997); Montagnini and Nair, (2004); Ramos et al. (2018); Tscharntke et al. (2011) | |
| Decrease in CO emissions2 due to increased photosynthetic activity per unit area and carbon sequestration in the soil. Emissions can decrease between 12.54% and 27.28% compared to bare soil. | Kusumawati et al. (2021). | ||
| Palm height and canopy diameter reduce understory tree growth and allow the oil palm to sequester 12 to 500 times more carbon. | Besar et al. (2020). | ||
| Pest and disease control | Increased number of predatory and parasitoid insects | Ashraf et al. (2018) | |
| Reduction of damage generated by pathogens (Ganoderma boninense) on oil palm-cocoa system. | Fadli et al. (2023); Suwandi et al. (2024) | ||
| Supporting | Regulation of the hydrological cycle and water flow. | Intercropping palm oil with cocoa can replenish more groundwater compared to monoculture. | Khasanah et al. (2020) |
| Maintenance of populations and habitats | Increase in the abundance of bird species between 4 and 41% higher in the plots with polycultures than in the oil palm monoculture. | Yahya et al. (2017). | |
| Increased richness and diversity of arthropods (predatory and decomposing insects). | Ashraf et al. (2018). | ||
| Three times higher mycorrhizal colonization in intercropping systems, especially in palm alleys. | da Silva Maia et al. (2021) | ||
| Cultural | Enjoyment activities | The value of the landscape and biodiversity may allow for passive recreation activities. | Yahya et al. (2017). |
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